Understanding PC hardware - St Options

[thienhao]

Understanding PC hardware

STEP 1 : Purchase/Collect The Components

Often this is the one step that takes the most time and consideration. Which parts do I buy? Which are best?

There are many good places to buy computer parts. You can go to a computer retail store in your area. Although they often provide good warranties, the trade off may be that you will pay a little more than you would in other places. Sometimes, a lot more. Also, due to the sheer volume of people they see every day, some of the "support specialists" don't always listen to your concerns and start jumping to conclusions on what you need or what the problem is. Some of them take pride that they can give you a technical answer in two seconds and make themselves look smart, even though what they just said is probably wrong. If you walk in and say your computer keeps crashing and he insists you need a new motherboard and CPU to fix it, start running.

Most towns have smaller stores that sell and repair computer equipment. These may be an office suite in a strip mall. Regardless of location, such stores are often cheaper and can provide individual attention. The hardware they sell is often retail packaged from the manufacturer. They may also sell OEM hardware, which usually comes wrapped in nothing but a static bag and is accompanied with very little documentation. You will need to be the judge on this type of hardware. If you feel you need the documentation, you should not buy OEM hardware. Also, not to stereotype certain businesses, but I have to tell you this so you'll be informed: the smaller mom-and-pop computer stores are sometimes a little more questionable as to their honesty, I've found. This is not always the case, but since they are a smaller business and don't have the large sale volumes of the larger retail stores, they are often under more pressure to make the sale just to stay solvent. Be aware of this when you walk in.

The bottom line here is to know your stuff. The PC sales industry is occupied by many who WILL take advantage of your lack of knowledge to make a sale.

Now, let us go through each type of hardware:

Case : Make sure you buy a case which will fit into the space you intend to place it. This is where you decide between a desktop or a tower case. Allow room for expandability; spare drive bays, ample room to work inside. Make sure it has a power supply. Is the case clean? Pay attention to the form factor: AT or ATX. Almost all newer motherboards are using the ATX form factor, so if you have an old case lying around, chances are a new board won't fit in it. If you do a lot of upgrading, you should get a case that is designed with this in mind, such as easily removed motherboard mounting plates, drive racks, etc. Things like the turbo switch and keylock are ancient technology, so pay no mind to having them. Try to have the buttons such as power and reset recessed, so that if you keep the case under the desk you won't accidentally kick the thing and reset it. Also, check the sturdiness of the case. Some cheaper cases are actually quite flimsy inside. Pay attention to how the case comes apart. Depending on the design, the screwless type is very user friendly. It's easier to work with a case that does not come apart in many pieces.

If you will be running a high-end processor in the case, pay attention to the cooling aspects of the box. It’s nice when cases come with case fans included, but if they do not, you should make sure the case is designed to allow them. You should have an unobstructed air hole in the front of the case for a front-mounted case fan, with some method of air flow from the rear of the case as well. Many power supplies also aid in cooling by having bottom-mounted fans that suck air from the inside of the case and blow it out the back through the power unit. And, along this line, pay attention to the wattage rating of the power supply included with the case. If you will be running either a large amount of hardware or fairly high-end hardware in this case, get a good strong power supply. I, not too long ago, upgraded my own PC and shortly thereafter had this mysterious odor of burning plastic in the office. Using the good old’ sniffer, I found that it was the power supply burning up. Right about the time I tracked it down, the whole PC went poof! Gone and could not turn it on again. I took out the 250W power supply and installed a solid 400W power supply and the PC has been running strong ever since. The PC ran great fairly loaded with a Pentium 3 450 MHz, but putting a new board and an AMD 1.3 GHz Thunderbird in there drove it batty. So, keep this in mind.

As far as brands go, there are many good manufacturers out there. I use Enlight. They make very sturdy cases that are easy to work with. Many other brands can be just as good. We've even seen some I-MAC looking cases that are semi-translucent. If you want a futuristic look, these may interest you. All aluminum cases are now started to catch on. If you don't mind spending a little more, you may want to take a look at the quality cases made by Lian-Li. If you’re into modified cases, you can get them pre-modified with viewing holes and everything. Or, if you’re so inclined, you can grab a nice case and do your own mods to it. For some reason, though, I’ve never been keen on tearing huge holes into my PCs, but maybe it’s just me.

Motherboard : Almost everyone knows that the motherboard is the most important component of your computer. At one point or another, every other component connects to the motherboard. Keep in mind that your motherboard choice controls your future upgrade paths. Want to upgrade your RAM? You first have to check and see what type your motherboard will take, and how much it will support. Want that new video card? Your motherboard will need an AGP slot. Get the point? If you choose the wrong motherboard in the beginning, you may find yourself having to buy a different one down the road to support some other upgrade. Today's motherboards are a lot more sophisticated than the one's in the 486 days. If you are used to these older systems, you will need to come up to speed on the latest boards. Where you once needed an IDE controller card, the connectors are now built right on the motherboard. USB was once an option - now it is integrated on every board. Some boards go all the way, offering built on SCSI controllers, 10/100 Ethernet support, onboard video and sound, etc. Buying a motherboard is a tradeoff - you need to know what you want and then pick that board which has the best combination of features for you. Bear in mind the old adage - sometimes it is better to buy what you will eventually end up with anyway.

There are really three levels of motherboards. Of course this is a generalization, but it’s accurate enough.
Bare-bone boards. These are the types of boards you usually get if you are not into PC hardware and don't want to deal with frustrations. You just want to build it and turn it on. These boards have built in sound and video, and sometimes other gizmos too, like a modem. They don't usually overclock well and don't have a wide range of CPU support. These boards are comparatively inexpensive. Many times, pre-built PCs come with these types of boards, and this is one of the reasons you should be following this tutorial. If you’re going to bother building your own PC, get a board that’s worth your time. This isn’t it.
Secondly, we have the level of board most commonly used. These boards come with a single CPU slot, EIDE controller, etc. Most don't have built in video, although more of them have built-in sound. This is fine, as long as it is easily disabled. They support a wide range of processors, and with more voltage and multiplier settings, they are more overclocking friendly. Some of these boards offer RAID capability. With the proper amount of PCI slots, these boards are great.
Thirdly, you have the beasts which most of us cannot afford. These are the dual processor boards, often with built on NIC and SCSI, a crapload of PCI slots. These are more for NT workstations than your desktop PC.

Some things you want to bear in mind:
Board Layout - A lot of people don't consider where everything is placed on the motherboard, but it is important. Is there a big capacitor right near the CPU slot, blocking where your CPU fan will go? Is there a bunch of ... that will block your full-length PCI card from fitting? Are the memory slots in a position where you’d need to remove the floppy drive to get at them? You need to know roughly what you will be plugging into this board and know if anything will get in the way. This also depends to a degree on the size of the case you are using. Trying to cram a larger board, like an Abit board, into a mini-tower is asking for trouble.

Slots - If we had our way, we'd have a motherboard with 20 PCI slots so we could run everything in the world. Unfortunately, this doesn't exist. So, you need to pay attention to how many PCI slots a motherboard has. For most of us the standard 4 or 5 PCI slots will be fine. Be careful, you can easily fill all your slots. Make sure the board has an AGP slot and if necessary, ISA or CNR slots.

Manuals - Believe me, you'll regret it if you don't think ahead and get a board with a good manual. If you purchase a no-name board, you'll probably get stuck with a manual that was written in Taiwanese or English you think a third grader would write. A lot of times, you'll find a pile of addendums added to the manual. They couldn't get it right the first time?! Make sure to look at the manual for your board and make sure you can understand it. Most well known brands have decent manuals. Asus, Abit, FIC, Tyan, Shuttle and a few others come with nice manuals. Another thing to keep in mind is that the better known manufacturers often have nice web sites, and you can get support info there, too. If you don’t know who the manufacturer is, of their website is utterly useless, think twice about using the board. Otherwise, you’ll be trying to email people like me asking who made it and I’ll probably not even reply.

Form Factor - Unless you would die without that older server case you are using, I would recommend going with the ATX form factor. ATX integrates all of the connectors, whereas with AT, you have to plug all of that ... in. AT boards use that big DIN keyboard connector which is a relic.

Chipset - The chipset is the hub of your motherboard. You need to pay strong attention to what chipset a motherboard has before you purchase it. The chipset is fully responsible for what hardware your motherboard will support now and in the future. It controls everything. If your motherboard won't support ATA-100, AGP 4x, etc. blame the chipset. There are many chipsets out there, and this tutorial is not the place to address them all. But, doing your research on this site and others, as well as observing the specs of the chipset itself before you buy it, will be beneficial.

Hardware Support - This one is really a no-brainer, but bears mentioning anyway due to its obvious importance. Pay attention to the specs to make sure that the board will support the hardware you would like to use. If possible, allow room for expandability beyond what you will be using as this will ensure you can use the board for awhile. If there are embedded components such as sound or video, this is fine as long we you are able to disable it easily. Unless you like that all-in-one thing, you’ll find you want to eventually put something better in there and you don’t want it conflicting with the built-in components.

Reviews - Finally, before purchasing any motherboard, find out what others think of it. You can rest assured that if there is any nagging annoyance with any motherboard you are thinking about buying that several people have noticed it and have posted all over the internet about it. Check out hardware review sites. I'm sure you all know where to go for those. Also check out Usenet Newsgroups.

Processor :

Processors come in three basic levels:
Low End - This group is made up of the people that may be starting just starting their own business, and need a computer to print letters, invoices, and other business related things. Most standard business software will run just fine on these processors. Here, we are talking about anything from the old 486 to 3-400MHz processors now days. This can include the original Pentium processors, Pentium II’s, AMD K6’s, the old Cyrix 6x86’s and the like. They used to be mainstream, but now they are old school, face it.
Average - This group of processors encompasses the bulk of the chips being sold right now. These processors zip at business software, but, depending on the speed and other things, also zip reasonably well at image editing or gaming. These include the Pentium 3’s and the Athlon T-Birds, and most processors ranging from the 500MHz range up to over a gigahertz. It’s amazing that over 1 gig is not considered average, but given that you can buy chips of these speeds so cheap now days, it’d be dumb not to get one.
High End - This group is the usually the company that's very competitive, on the leading edge of profitability, needs a high end processor for CAD, or just has a lot of money to burn. If you're in this group, you should be looking Intel Pentium 4 processors, or an AMD XP processor ranging upwards of 2 Ghz. These processors are the top of the line. They have the most onboard memory, and they are the best at crunching numbers that are needed for CAD and other CPU intensive programs.

Which CPU you need for a new system is a matter of personal choice. And, on this note, keep in mind that all processors need cooling. Most retail-boxed processors come with fans included or already attached. But, if not, or if you’re getting an OEM processor, make sure to get a good fan. Make sure the fan is of the ball bearing variety and not one of those cheap sleeve bearing fans. Make sure it is rated for your processor, as some fans look fine when you look at them, but wouldn’t help a high speed processor do anything but boil itself to death. Also, and this is not usually an issue, it is nice when the fan gets it power from the CPU_FAN power 3-pin plug on the motherboard rather than take up a plug from your power supply. If you are dealing with older hardware here, you may have the heat sink separate from the fan. In this case, you’ll want to make sure the heat sink has a way of attaching to the processor, either by clips or with heat sink compound.

Memory:

Memory is a big part of your machine, so get the good stuff. A lot of people get really confused when it comes to memory, and it’s really not necessary. Some memory manufacturers will help you find compatible memory for your motherboard on their websites. One such company is Crucial Technology. In most cases, standard non-parity, non-ECC memory will work just fine. Most boards today are still using SDRAM, although DDR-DRAM has really caught on and is a lot faster. In short, though, memory is not a huge issue and just buy what your motherboard requires. And, with today’s prices, buy lots of it. Operating systems themselves require large amounts of memory. Windows XP’s bare minimum requirement is 128MB of RAM. So, give yourself ample breathing room and don’t try to save a few measly bucks by not getting enough memory.

Video Card:

There are just tons of video cards out there to choose from, all saying they're the best and sporting snazzy graphics on the boxes to grab your attention in the store. Let me give you some general pointers:

Where it used to be we all used 2 MB cards and thought you were a gaming nerd if using a 4 MB card, all graphics cards today have a lot more- usually 64 MB or higher. Get it. It won't cost that much. Likewise, AGP is now the standard, so unless you're using a relic motherboard without an AGP slot, get an AGP video card. As for power, consider what you'll be doing with the PC. If you're doing mostly business and internet and the occasional game, then you don't need a super-duper gaming card. A card with decent 3D and good 2D power is better for you. Most video cards on the market today are pretty decent at 3D and kick-ass at 2D. 2D really does not require all that much out of a video card. Watch the reviews to get viewpoints on different manufacturers. Some cards come with TV-out channels, video-in, or even TV tuners. This is great stuff, and if you can afford it, go for it. I would say, in general, though, that do-everything cards usually sacrifice performance tweaks, so if you’re trying to build an all-around kick-ass system here that pumps pixels so hard you’ll drool, get a card that does that with authority and don’t worry about the TV. Hell, you can buy a TV cheaper than some of those video cards. Make sure whatever you get is matched to your monitor. There is no sense in buying a cutting edge video card with killer refresh rates if you're using a clunker monitor that can't do it.

Removable Storage:

All PC’s have some form of removable storage, even if it’s only a floppy disk drive. In the case of a floppy, there’s really nothing much to know about them. Just buy one that looks alright and works. And, don’t even think about putting a 5.25 floppy drive in your PC. A lot of PCs now boast more advanced media such as ZIP drives or maybe an LS-120. These can be useful, given that 1.44MB for a floppy is really barely anything. Plus, they are slow as hell. Beyond these drives, though, the CD-R/CD-RW drives are the real craze right now…and for good reason. If you want a drive where you can perform backups and share data with friends without really worrying about capacity issues, invest in a CD burner. They are pretty fast now, and companies like TDK offer drives with Smart-Burn technology that will virtually guarantee you never mess up a burning session by doing something else on the PC at the same time.

Hard Drive:

Make sure it looks good. Always buy new, in my opinion. And make sure it has a manual, or at the very least, a jumper diagram imprinted on the drive itself. For price and compatibility, I'd stick with IDE. With IDE, though, make sure the drive is UDMA. Most likely, your motherboard supports ATA-33,66 or 100. So, you may want to get a drive that can pump that hard. Get a drive with a decent rotation speed. 5400 RPM drives are slow. 7200 RPM is better, and higher RPM drives even better. The really fast drives, though, may require a hard drive cooler, so unless you are willing to mess with that, get a drive with a good balance of speed and temperature. If speed is your biggest concern, go for the SCSI interface. Keep in mind that with SCSI you will have to purchase the additional hardware necessary for the SCSI bus. Also, get the largest drive you can afford. You’ll be surprised how fast you can fill up a hard drive, depending on what you do with your PC. Large volume drives are dirt cheap now, so get yourself a biggie.

Sound Card : An absolute necessity in today's PC world. There are tons of available cards out there, but I recommend the name brand again. I've tried some of the various cheaper clones and had my share of driver issues with them. Read the reviews, as there are a lot of sound cards out there with special features. Some cards pimp special sound algorithms that are supposed to enhance the sound. Some of these suck, but others really improve the sound. Some cards, like the upper-end Creative Labs cards, have extensions with all sorts of inputs and things that attach to the sound card and expand the capabilities. These are not usually important unless you’re into sound mixing or audio-video editing. Make sure the card has 4-channel support, because this really makes the PC sound great if you have enough speakers. With the card, you must get speakers. You can spend a lot on speakers, but I recommend at least a 3-piece system (with a sub). You'll appreciate the deeper base response and overall sound. Altec Lansing makes good stuff, as well as others. Labtec makes good speakers, although their sound doesn't really impress me. For true top of the line check out the Klipsch Pro-Media speakers or Boston Acoustics.

CD-ROM/DVD : Make sure it has a driver installation disk (almost all retail units do). You will need to get this drive working so that you can install the operating system. These drives are very inexpensive now, get a fast one: 40X or faster. Make sure it is ATAPI compatible IDE. Some drives look like IDE drives, although they really use a proprietary interface, such as that used on some older Creative multimedia kits. If you're buying new, you won't find this in the stores anymore, so don't worry. If you want more than a simple CD-ROM, get yourself a DVD player. These drives are not much more than a regular CD-ROM and are backward-compatible with CD-ROMS, so they serve all purposes. Then, with a good DVD software player like PowerDVD or WinDVD you can watch movies or use DVD software on your PC.

Keyboard & Mouse : Rather self-explanatory. Make sure the keyboard connector fits into the plug on the motherboard, otherwise you may need an adapter. Most new boards use a PS/2 connector for the keyboard. Make sure the mouse works. And choose the right kind for your system: serial or PS/2. If you like, you can get fancy "Natural Keyboards", which are basically regular keyboards that are bent in the middle. It takes a while to get used to them, but they are nice. You can also get mice with various gizmos such as scroll wheels, roller-balls, etc. If you like feminine mice (without balls =| ) , then you can check out optical mice, such as the Intellimouse Explorer from Microsoft.

Drive cables : Make sure you have all cables for connecting the hard drive, floppy drive, and CD-ROM to the I/O on the motherboard or I/O card. These cables usually are supplied with the motherboard or drive itself, but not always, and sometimes not in the quantity you need. Make sure they are long enough. Inspect for damage, such as ripped wires or something. Also, keep in mind that ATA/66-100 drives must have an 80-wire IDE cable. It's the same width as the norm, but each wire is thinner, so they cram more wires into the cable. If you’re paying special attention to cooling issues, you may choose to get rounded data cables. These are nice as they tidy up the inside of your case and allow cleaner air flow than would a case crammed with a bunch of wide, gray ribbon cables that often get in the way.

Audio Cable : Usually supplied with the CD-ROM, it connects your CD-ROM to your sound card directly.

Screws : Makes sure you have enough screws. Usually an ample amount is supplied with your case. Make sure the screws are the right size. There are different sizes used for connecting card than for connecting drives, and if you try using a large screw on the drive, you'll crack the drive.

System Disk: Make sure you have a system disk setup and ready to use. You can make one for whatever operating system you plan on using. If you have another machine already running, use it to make a system disk. Hopefully you are using Windows 98 or better, since it makes CD-ROM setup later in this tutorial much easier.

That was a bried overview of the hardware scene for you and hopefully it serves as some advice for collecting parts to build your PC. There is no way I can cover all brands of make any solid recommendations as to manufacturer in this tutorial, so much of that research would need to be done separately.

Now, we will move into some actual assembly steps...

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STEP 2 : Remove Case Cover

This is a very easy step. Basically, you are just taking the cover off your new case. If you have a plain jane case, you take a screwdriver and remove the four or six screws located around the edge on the back of your case. Hang on to these screws and put them in a place where they will not be scattered and can be easily found. Once they are removed, the entire case cover comes off in one piece. With this design, the front of the case does not move. Only the top and sides come off as a cover. In some newer cases, you may have to yank the front cover off and then unscrew the case sides from the front.

If you have a newer, more expensive case, it may come apart differently. The manufacturers of better made cases have gone to a "screwless" design. With this design, you usually take hold of the bottom of the front bezel of the case and give it a nice solid yank. The front then pulls off. It is my experience that this usually requires a few tries and some muscle. These cases are usually pretty durable. The sides then lift and slide off as does the top. Your case, in essence, comes apart in four pieces. Other cases come apart in a similar way, but after you take the front off, the top and sides come off together.

Each case is a little different in how it comes apart. There are almost as many designs as there are companies that make them. You may find some where you don't even have to remove the front, and rather you just slide the sides off. With others, you can remove the whole motherboard mounting plate and card rack combo from the case by sliding it out the back. This is convenient for making quick changes to the system, although you still have to disconnect the various cables to get it out all the way. Whatever case style you have, remember to look it all over before you attempt to gain entry. You don't want to force it and break anything - take your time.

Now that this is done, you are ready to move on.

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STEP 3 : Case Preparation

At this point, you should have the new case in front of you with the cover removed. Before you can use it for a new system, you must prepare it for use. Go through the following checklist to make sure it is prepared. Not all of this may be necessary on your case, and if you’re using a case you already had, much or all it has likely been done already. Nonetheless, this is a useful guideline.

Now that the case is open, now is a good time to go through the screw supply provided with the case. These are usually held in a small plastic bag nestled inside the case. Inside this bag you should find:

Chassis screws - this is the type used to tighten down cards, etc.
Smaller screws - just like the chassis screws, just with a smaller diameter. It is used to fasten the motherboard in.
Standoffs - these are screws that are used to hold the motherboard about 1/8" from the motherboard mounting plate. Their ends have a threaded opening in them that accept the smaller chassis screws. If you have an AT case, you may find small white standoffs. These serve the same function as the metal standoff, but are simply punched through the board and slid into slots on the case. They are rather clumsy to use compared to the metal standoffs, but they get the job done. Lastly, some cases use small metal clip-looking stand-offs. They are pinched together and slipped into small rectangular holes in the motherboard mounting plate and they snap in. These are, too, a bit awkward.
Washers. These are typically small, loose washers, not the metal kind you’ve seen in your toolbox. These will be used to cushion your motherboard from the screws you will be using to hold it in. Some motherboards have metal plates around the holes to keep the screws from shorting the circuitry, and in this case, washers are not necessary and may not be included.

Now, verify a few things have been done, if they need to be done.

1. Clean Case - If the case is new, this should be no big deal. But, if the case has been used before, it could probably stand a cleaning. Clean out the inside with a rag or compressed air. Make sure the fan in the power supply is free of furry dust. Also take a rag and wipe it off.

2. Inspect the Power Supply - Make sure it is tightly attached to the case, make sure it is free of dust, and make sure it is set to the proper voltage of your area- 110V for U.S. and 220V (I think) for outside countries.
3. Inspect Power Switch - Make sure the power switch is securely tightened and correctly connected to the power supply. With most AT cases, the power switch is already connected to the power supply by four wires. In ATX cases, the power switch will have one loose wire coming off of it. This wire will then connect to the Power Switch connector on the motherboard. The power supply should be attached to the power switch already and the connectors should be covered with electrical tape.

4. Install Feet - These are little tabs inserted into holes at the bottom of the case. The case sits on these tabs when on your desk. If the case has been used before or it is a more expensive case, this may not need to be done.

5. Install Case Fan - Sometimes, you may want to install a separate fan that screws onto a rack next to the vent on the front of the case. This helps increase circulation of air through the system. Make sure the fan is set to draw air into the case, not blow out. Many cases already have this installed, so you may not need to worry about it. Some like to put a little filter over the hole so as to prevent dust from being drawn in.
6. Configure the LED - The LED on the case operates completely separate from the actual speed of the system, so you can set that now. It is done with jumpers on the back of the LED. You will need the little manual that came with the case to do this right. Many newer cases don’t even have LED’s, so don’t worry about it.

7. Free Up the Drive Bays - Brand new (cheaper) cases sometimes have the drive bays sealed with metal plates. It’s the most annoying thing. If you want to install any drives, and you probably do, you’ll need to remove these. Choose the drive bays you want to use (usually the ones at the top on tower cases) and remove the metal plates. These are attached by metal, so they take some cutting, prying and twisting to break them free. Be careful not to hurt the case or yourself. The plate will likely have sharp edges once removed. Better cases have these bays covered with plastic, replaceable plates which are a lot easier and make infinitely more sense.

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STEP 4 : Configure Your Motherboard

It’s time to get your motherboard ready to install. The next few steps of the tutorial will walk you through how to do this. This step as well as the installation of the memory and CPU is much easier to do before installing the motherboard in the case. It can be done while the motherboard is in the case, and if you were working on a PC after it has been built, you would likely be doing so. But, when building a PC from scratch, it is easier to perform the configuration and setup of the motherboard from the outset.

Motherboards tend to be the most daunting obstacle in a first time builder's mind. But, they should not be. They are actually pretty easy to configure and set up, as long as you can do a few basic things. The first thing is to be able to read the manual and understand what it is saying. If there are any words or concepts in the manual which you do not understand, look them up. This is very important, as not really understanding what is going on can lead to dumb mistakes.

Second, you need to know how to manipulate a jumper. First understand that a motherboard is very configurable. This is done so that it can work with a variety of different hardware configurations. The settings the board uses are governed by which circuits are carrying electricity. Now, we have the jumper, which is nothing more than a pair of pins, each carrying an electric current. When these pins are left in a non-connected state, then the small plastic cap is not placed over them and the circuit is broken. Thus, whatever setting that particular jumper controls is off. This state is called "uncapped" or simply "off". Now, if you place the cap over the two pins, then the circuit is complete, and the configuration of the board changes accordingly. That is the theory behind a jumper.

Now, in the real world, jumpers can be more than two pins. Sometimes a particular jumper, labeled JP1 or something similar, can consist of three or more pins. In this case, the manual will tell you which pins to uncap and which to cap in order to set a particular setting. As long as you understand the manual, you're in good shape.

Configuring your motherboard usually requires setting jumpers on the motherboard according to the CPU you plan on putting on it. I say "usually" because not all boards use jumpers for this. Some make use of DIP Switches, although these are not commonly seen these days. Other newer boards are jumperless, making use of a system in which the settings that are normally set with jumpers or DIPs are set in a special CMOS type program. If the motherboard you are installing is jumperless, you can basically skip this step because it will have to be done later. You might want to read through it, though, because even the "jumperless" design has a few jumpers and you will need to know what you are doing even with the jumperless design.

You need to have the manual for your board available. If you do not have the manual, log on to the manufacturer's web site and see if you can find this info there. You can also try their tech support via phone. In some cases, too, some of the jumper settings are printed onto the surface of the motherboard. If you don't have any of this info, you are just out of luck. Unfortunately, you must have some form of documentation available simply because motherboards have so many settings to adjust. If you’re dealing with an older board, you may need to spend some time trying to identify the manufacturer so that you can see if they do support it. You can many times use the BIOS ID numbers to identify the board online.

Motherboard manuals come in two main formats. Some are friendly for hardware buffs by listing a separate jumper or DIP switch for CPU core voltage, I/O voltage, multiplier, and system bus speed. They then tell you the settings for each of these. This format is better because of the increased control. Other manuals list the settings next to a list of commonly used CPU's, showing the common settings for each. While this format is easier for the end user for easy setup, it is tougher if you like increased control of the settings, for overclocking for example. The best manuals do both: list the jumper setting individually as well as provide a list of processors and the jumper settings for each.

There are few things to be careful of. When setting the processor speed via the jumpers, use the processor’s TRUE speed. If your chip is rated with the P-rating system, it does not run at this speed. The P-rating is simply a comparison to the Intel chip. Such an example is the Cyrix 6x86MX-233. This chip has a P-rating of 233MHz, but actually runs at 187.5MHz. The good news is that most CPU manufacturers no longer use the P-rating system and any modern or semi-modern processor does not use it.

When playing with the board, be careful with it. It is usually best to place it on the static bag it was in when setting the jumpers. Always place the board on a flat surface, not carpet or anything like that. And always ground yourself before handling the board. When handling the board, handle it by the edges only when at all possible.

A NOTE ON GROUNDING: It is important that you ground your body before handling computer components. Your body can accumulate huge amounts of static charge just by walking. You may not feel it, and most certainly do not, but the charge can be sufficient to fry a computer component. It’s the same effect as rubbing your feet on carpet and touching a doorknob. So, before handling electronics in this tutorial, ground yourself by touching the frame of your PC’s case with both hands. You can also use a filing cabinet or anything conductive attached to the ground in some fashion.

Now, here is the basic procedure for motherboard configuration:
Read the Manual. Always. Read the listings for settings and locate all jumpers on the motherboard itself and what settings they control.

Set the voltage settings. Most older chips use one single voltage. The newer chips we use today use a split voltage. Most newer motherboards provide jumpers for the core voltage and I/O voltage. Set them to match your intended CPU. If you are using an older chip with one voltage, just set both voltages to be the same. Your best bet to choose the correct voltage is to see what is printed on the CPU itself. Most CPUs will have “core voltage” printed somewhere on it. That is your voltage. Many newer boards are designed to detect the voltage automatically and then use the correct voltage. In this case, you will not have to worry about it.

Set the processor speed. This is not usually done with a single jumper. It is, instead, done by setting the system bus speed and a multiplier. The multiplier is the number which when multiplied by the system bus speed gives the processor speed. There is a separate jumper for each of these settings. Configure these to match the intended CPU. If you know what you're doing and would like to overclock the chip a tad, set these jumpers a little differently. Generally, though, I would recommend actually getting the system working before trying to overclock it. If your manual lists settings by CPU, just do what it says. You can sometimes infer from the manual which switches control voltage, multiplier, etc. Also, watch for chips that use different multiplier settings than they actually use. For example, many 233MHz chips use a 3.5x multiplier, but since some boards don't offer this option, they interpret the 1.5x multiplier to be 3.5x. So, set the bus speed first. Most CPU's are designed to operate on the 66MHz or 100MHz bus, although many choose to operate higher than this or at various speeds in between. After this, set the multiplier. This will depend on the CPU you are using. For example, let's say you are installing a Pentium II-266. You set a bus speed of 66MHz. In order to run the processor at its intended speed of 266MHz, you must set a 4.0x multiplier. 66MHz X 4.0 = 266MHz.

Generally, if your board is jumper-controlled, you will need to consult the manual for the proper jumper arrangement, use the motherboard layout in the manual to find the jumper on the board itself, and use either your finger or tweezers to adjust the jumper to look like the diagram in your manual. When the jumpers in question look like they should in the diagrams, then you’re set. And,, again, if your CPU settings are NOT jumper-controlled, you will be taking bare of all this later on.

Some boards make use of a jumper to set the cache size and type. Set this now, if need be. If you have internal cache, which most do, you won't need to bother. Likewise, some boards give you the ability to use either AT or ATX power supplies. Depending on which type you will be using, you may need to set a jumper to tell the board what type of power to use.

If your board supports the asynchronous SDRAM clock speed, as most boards with Via chipsets do, you need to set the jumpers properly for this as well. This capability allows you to run the memory at a different clock speed than the rest of the system. This comes in handy, for example, when you want to use older memory yet run the rest of the system at the higher bus speed. You can set the system bus speed at 100MHz and then set the memory to run at 66MHz or 75MHz, for example. The instructions for properly setting this up are in your board's manual.

If you’ve done that, most of the configuring is done. Now you want to double-check the other settings that were set by the manufacturer to make sure they are correct. Make sure the CMOS-clear jumper is set to normal so that you can change the BIOS settings later. Make sure the battery jumper is set to onboard battery instead of external battery. If you have a jumper enabling FLASH BIOS, make sure this is disabled. Also, check to see if all jumpers enabling or disabling onboard controllers are set correctly. All these settings are usually set correctly by default, but you need to make sure. Keep in mind that many boards control these feature via their CMOS and you will be setting them after the PC is up and running, not now with jumpers.

Double-Check all of your own work. Better safe than sorry.

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STEP 5 : Install the CPU

Installing the CPU is a pretty straight-forward process. The real risk is to the CPU. Doing this step too fast or carelessly can result in damage to the processor. Therefore, don't get nervous. It is an easy step, but do it with care.

There are several common interfaces for CPU's today: Socket 7, Slot 1, Socket 370, Slot A and Socket A. Socket 7, Socket 370 and Socket A look very similar, only differing by number of pins and various voltages. Older processors such as the Pentiums, K6’s, 6x86’s use the Socket 7. Socket 370, as I said, looks similar but is only used by Intel Celerons and the Cyrix Joshua chips, since they have a license to use the design by Intel. Socket A is used by all current higher end processors by AMD. Slot 1 is used for most Intel Pentium II’s, III’s, and certain Celerons. Slot A looks like Slot 1, but is electrically different and is used for the older Athlon processors before they switched to Socket A. Intel would not license their design to AMD. Therefore, depending on the processor you will be using, the CPU installation will be different. Therefore, this step will be divided into two sections.

Almost all Socket 7, and all Socket 370 and A systems make use of the zero-insertion force (ZIF) socket. Therefore, this procedure is relevant with that setup.

To install a processor using this type of interface, follow this procedure:

1. Check the pins. Turn the chip over and inspect the pins. Are they bent? They should all stick straight up. If many of them are bent, then it is best to request a replacement processor. If only a couple are bent and the bend is not that much, then you may be able to use a screwdriver to gently bend the pins back into place. Do so VERY carefully.

2. Open ZIF Socket. This is done by grabbing the lever on one side of the socket and opening it. Pull the lever from the closed, level position, to the open, vertical position. You may need to pull the lever out a bit before it will open. Do this slowly and don't force it. You don't want to break the socket. On the way up, you may experience a little more force. This is normal. The top part of the ZIF socket will slide over a bit.

3. Orient The Chip. This involves locating Pin 1 on both the chip and the socket. This is easy to do. The chip is always marked at Pin 1. The mark may be a little dot on one corner, a slightly notched corner, or a mark at one of the pins under the chip. On the socket, there is usually a notch on one corner, or a big "1". These corners will be matched up for correct installation.

4. Insert Processor. Bearing in mind the orientation determined in Step 3, insert the chip into the socket. With a ZIF socket, the chip should install very easily. It should almost fall into the socket with all pins lining up. That's why they call it the Zero Insertion Force socket. If not, the socket is probably not open all the way. If you do not have a ZIF socket (God forbid!), you need to exercise extreme care. Lay the chip on the socket. Make sure all pins line up. Then, slowly push the chip into the socket. Use your thumb and push on one side of the chip until it starts to go in. Then proceed to another side and repeat. Do this around the chip several times until it is completely installed.

5. When done, there should be basically no gap between the bottom of the processor and the socket.

6. Close ZIF Socket. Just close the lever. You will probably feel some resistance. This is normal and it should close anyway. If you really need to lean on it, though, check to be sure the chip is installed correctly. When down, make sure the lever snaps into place. You're done.

Slotted processors are installed different because the interface is completely different. The slot is basically like a long PCI slot, although it is usually brown, not white. It runs parallel to the memory slots. Now that we have it spotted, let's install the chip.

1. Basically, this rack serves as a guide-rail and support for the CPU to rest in. Since this type of processor sticks up high off the board and is rather slim, it would simply be too loose in the slot without the rails. The rails usually come with the motherboard. They will be about the height of the processor and have two built-in screws on one end. Position a rail on each end of the Slot. Use a screw to tighten it into place onto the motherboard receptors. Do this for each side of the Slot. Some racks have each side attached by a plastic frame, and this frame goes around the entire slot. When done, you should have one rail on each end of the slot. Some boards already have them installed so that all you have to do is “unfold” them for use. This is really convenient.

2. Install the Cooler onto the Processor. It is much easier to do this, usually, before you push the chip into its slot. All coolers are a little different in the way they attach to the CPU, but most use the little holes on the metal side of the processor to lock into place. With some coolers, you may need to use a support to keep it off the motherboard. This support comes with the rack setup, and you only use it when needed.

3. Insert the Processor. It is time to insert the processor into the Slot. The processor has one card-like edge at the bottom of the black cartridge. This edge is keyed so that it can only insert into the slot the correct way. So, push the processor into the guide rails and down all the way to the surface of the slot. Make sure the cooler(or fan) is facing the side near the motherboard's chipset. When you get to the bottom, you will feel some resistance. This is normal. Work the processor in until the little levers at the top of the guide rails click into place, locking the chip in.

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STEP 6 : Install Heat Sink/Fan

As mentioned in the previous step, slotted processors usually have the heat sink/fan combo installed before the CPU is actually installed onto the motherboard. But, with socket processors, this cannot be done because the fan is actually clipped to the motherboard.

Well, I'll get right to it. Some of these steps are unnecessary on modern machines, but are here for the sake of covering all setups. I will highlight these legacy steps in red.

1. Attach the fan to the heat sink. This step is almost always already done for you, but if not, you must do it yourself. This is done using the four screws that came with the CPU fan.

2. Apply the Heat Sink Compound. Heat sink compound is something that many do not use anymore, myself included. But, in some older systems, it will be necessary. Or you may wish to in order to increase the conductivity of the heat from the processor into the heat sink. To do this, apply just enough to cover the surface of the chip. If you have portions of the chip higher than others, apply compound only to the raised areas. The layer should be thin. More won't hurt anything, but will be a mess when you press the heat sink down.

3. Attach The Heat Sink. Place the heat sink/fan combo squarely on top of the processor, pressing down lightly. Most newer heat sinks use a set of clips on each side to fasten itself down. These clips attach to a pair of tabs on each side of the socket. It will probably take a little bit of force to bend the clip down over the tab. Other heat sinks wrap around the processor, then just sit on top, the compound being the only real attachment.

4. Double-Check Contact. If you are using heat sink compound, you need to make sure all areas of the chip are in contact with the heat sink. The best way to do this is to temporarily remove the heat sink again and see if there are any areas of compound that remain smooth because it didn't touch the chip. Apply a little more compound to any such areas, then refasten the heat sink. Repeat this until all areas are in contact with the processor.

5. Clean The Mess. If you applied too much compound, some will have oozed out the sides. Wipe this up. After that, you're done.

6. Attack fan to power source. Unless your CPU fan is powered via a standard power supply plug, it is probably powered by a wire attached to a 3-pin power lead on the motherboard itself. You can attack this now. The CPU_FAN power lead is located near the CPU interface somewhere. The lead will have two small pins on each side, and these pins surround the power plug and the pins are inserted into the holes in the plug. It should be pretty easy and obvious.
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STEP 7 : Install the Cache Module

On many late-486's and early Pentiums, external cache, or Level 2 cache, was installed in a slot. This was later abandoned in favor of on-board cache or on-chip cache, which is mostly used today. If you are installing a newer board with on-board cache, you can skip this step. Likewise, if you’re using a Pentium II or newer processor or almost any manufacturer, the L2 cache is built into the chip, so the motherboards for these chips have no cache at all and this step can again be ignored.

The cache module is usually called the COASt module. It is not universal. Like RAM, there are different types, and you need to make sure you are installing the right type.

Follow this simple procedure to install your COASt module, if you have one:

1. Line It Up. This is pretty easy. COASt modules are keyed to prevent incorrect installation. This is done by placing an indent on some point other than the halfway point, thereby leaving a different amount of contacts on one side of the indent than another.

2. Insert The Module. Again, easy. Once lined up, push the module into the slot. This may require a bit of pressure, but don't force it. Make sure the motherboard is on a flat surface so that you don't flex the board. Like a card, it may be easier to rock the module, installing one side, then the other.

3. Check Your Work. You're pretty much done. Just make sure that the contacts are almost all the way into the slot, and that, obviously, the module sticks straight off the motherboard.=)

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STEP 8 : Install Memory

You should now install your memory modules. You need to make sure you have the right kind of memory for your motherboard, but you should have taken care of this already.

On older machines, there are a few installation guidelines to follow. Make sure the memory banks are full on your board. The memory banks will be outlined in your manual. On a Pentium system, 72-pin SIMMs must be installed in pairs. DIMMs can be installed alone. On 486 class machines, 72-pin SIMMs can be installed alone while 30-pin SIMMs must be installed in groups of four.

Most systems use 168-pin SDRAM or memory of newer formats such as DDR-DRAM. On these systems, memory can be installed in just about any combination and can be installed alone. So, this is the good news for those of you using modern technology. I assume most people using this tutorial will have hardware new enough to not worry about memory banks and all that ....

Let's get on with it:

1. Decide which slots you are going to use and orient the memory module over it. The module will be keyed in such a way that it will only go in the correct way. So, find the small notch in the memory slot and align the module so that that notch will be inserted into the gap in the module itself. Easy.

2. Install the Module. With SIMMs (30-pin or 72-pin), you need to stick it in at an angle, about 45 degrees. With DIMMs (anything newer than a SIMM), they go straight in.

3. Lock the module in place. Obviously, SIMMs don't sit in the motherboard at a 45 degree angle. Rotate it to the vertical position. This may require a bit of muscle, but do not force it. If it is too hard, it is probably installed backwards. When it is vertical, you should see the little plastic or metal clips snap into place, thereby holding the SIMM in place. With DIMMs, all you have to do is close the levers on either side of the DIMM. If they do not close, it is because the DIMM is not inserted all the way into the slot. A lot of times, you can just keep pushing the DIMM into the slot and the levers will close automatically.

4. Done. Now just repeat these steps for each of your memory modules. When you are done, double-check your work

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STEP 9 : Install the Motherboard

1. Now you need to install the motherboard into the case. If you’re following this tutorial, the CPU, fan and memory will already be installed onto the motherboard, so you will be installing this whole setup into the case now.
Once the case is positioned correctly for work, locate the holes on the motherboard and the holes on the case or motherboard mounting plate. You might want to hold the board just above the case motherboard plate and see which holes on the case line up with holes on the motherboard. You might need to place some components of the case out of the way so that you can do this, including the power leads and motherboard hook-ups. But, the point here is to find out which holes out of the many holes on the motherboard mounting plate will need to be used for your particular motherboard. All motherboards have mounting holes in different places.

2. Now gather your spacers, pictured to the right. Screw them in to the holes in the case or mounting plate that line up with holes on the motherboard. You can tighten them with a 3/16" nut driver or by hand. Some cases have small spacers that snap into place. With these, you push them through the mounting plate from the back side and they will snap into place.
3. For the holes on the motherboard that line up with an eyelet hole on the case (a hole that is very long so that you can slide things in it), install a plastic stand-off on the motherboard. The stand-offs should poke through the motherboard and expand to keep them in place. The little disk on the other end of the stand-off will later be used to slide into the eyelet holes. If your case does not provide eyelet holes, do not worry about this step. Most cases use only the metal spacer screws to hold the motherboard. In fact, if your case doesn’t have them, good.

4. Now slide the board into the case. Make sure it sits on the spacers and that all the spacers line up with an available hole on the motherboard. If you have any stand-offs installed, make sure the little disks on them are placed into the wide end of the eyelet hole, then slid over to the narrow part, thus locking them in. Once the stand-offs are locked in, all spacers should line up. If you have a case with a detachable motherboard mounting plate, simply place the board over the previously placed spacer screws on the plate, and make sure they all line up with holes through the motherboard. As you do this, you will need to make sure that the I/O connectors (parallel, keyboard and mouse ports) face backwards and properly align and go through the holes in the back of the case. Some cases have a flimsy removable plate in this back area, and you can easily poke out the holes you need to use so that the motherboard’s corresponding parts can poke through. Other cases have this rear portion as part of the chassis, and you will need to use a flat head screwdriver to pry the metal covers out of the holes. When this step is complete, you should have a motherboard sitting in your case, with the screw holes lining up with the spacers beneath it and the I/O connectors should be sticking out of the holes at the back of the case properly.

5. Inspect the screws you will use to tighten the board down. If the head of the screws are too wide, and you think they might contact any circuitry on the motherboard, place a plastic washer over each hole. I’ve had some ATX boards refuse to start up later because they were grounded somewhere to the case, probably by a screw.

6. Tighten the board down. Install the screws into each of the spacers underneath, through the board and the washers if you used them. Tighten them down by hand first, then finish them with a screwdriver. Make sure you do not tighten them too much. You don't want to crack your board. Just make them snug so that the board doesn't wiggle around in the case.

7. If you were installing the board to a removable mounting plate, install the motherboard mounting plate back into the case. On some cases, the plate is installed from the side. On these, you insert the bottom edge of the plate into a guide rail on the bottom of the case and then rotate upward. The top edge of the plate will contact the case, at which point you can screw it in or a spring loaded handle will lock it in. On other cases, the plate may slide in a different way, as from the rear. These plates are then easily removed later if you ever need to remove the motherboard.

8. Double Check your work. Check to be sure that the back of the motherboard is not touching any part of the case or mounting plate. Make sure the slots and connectors line up with the holes on the back of the case. And definitely be sure that the board is rigid and tight. If you press down on the board at any point, it should not bend down.

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STEP 10 : Install the I/O Connectors & Mouse

Now that the motherboard is in place, you can start connecting all the parts of the computer to it. The first step is to install the I/O connectors, such as your parallel and serial ports.

Note that if you are installing an ATX motherboard, these connectors are built into the motherboard, and you do not have to do this step.

1. Study the setup and determine mounting technique. AT style boards almost always come with slot inserts that have the parallel and serial ports mounted on them. These are just screwed onto a couple of your expansion slot bays on the back of the case. While this is easy, it steals the slots away from the motherboard slots, keeping you from using those slots later for expansion cards. To get around tying up these slots, you can remove the actual ports from the metal plate and install them into the dedicated port holes on the back of the case, if your case has them. These holes are located above the regular card slot bays and are usually covered with a metal cap that will need to be pried out with a screwdriver.
2. If you are installing ports on the metal insert, you can now screw these inserts into one of the available slots on the back of the case. It is best to choose a slot near the top that will not be used for anything else and provides a short enough distance so that the I/O cables can reach the motherboard.

3. If you are installing the ports into the dedicated slots on the case, you should now choose which slots you will use, making sure you choose those that fit your I/O ports, such as 9-pin or 25-pin. Then remove the cover from these slots. Some cases hold these covers on with a screw. With others, the cover is a metal punch, where you can remove it with a screwdriver and bending it until it snaps off.

4. If the ports are installed in a metal insert, un-install them now. Then install them into the appropriate case slot. You can tighten them in with hexagonal nuts, just like those used on the metal insert.

5. Either way you installed the ports, they are installed now. All you need to do is connect them to the motherboard. Using the board's manual, determine which connectors are for the ports, usually labeled PRNT, for printer or LPT1, then COM1 and COM2. Most likely, the 9-pin connector connects to the COM 1 connector on the motherboard. Pay attention to pin 1 on the connectors. Make sure the red side of the ribbon cable is lined up with pin 1.

If you are using a serial mouse, it will simply plug into the 9-pin connector you just installed. If you will be using a PS/2 mouse with this system, then this connector is attached the same way. Install the insert near the PS/2 connector on the motherboard. Then connect the PS/2 cable to the connector, usually consisting of a few pins sticking straight up off the board.

[thienhao]

Understanding Memory

Adding It Up
Should you live with a minimum amount of RAM and save a few dollars, or should you spend some extra cash and load up the system? Just how much memory is enough? The answer really depends on what you're doing with the PC; RAM requirements can vary from system to system. Let's do the math.

Windows XP is rated to run with a minimum of 128MB, but it gets a real speed boost from 256MB. Windows 2000 puts its baseline at 64MB but will benefit from 128MB or more and as a server will see optimal performance with 512MB or more. Windows 98 and Me will run with 32MB, but you'll need at least 64MB for decent performance and 128MB or more to shine. Linux users will need at least 48MB to 64MB (depending on the version) but will certainly benefit from 128MB. For a Linux server, you could easily use 512MB or more.

Of course, the OS is useless without applications, so you'll also need enough memory to load all the programs you want to run at any one time. Applications like Microsoft Word or Excel generally use about 32MB each, but you can check the system requirements listed on each application's box to determine the recommended RAM. If you want to run three applications simultaneously (say, Word, Internet Explorer, and Media Player), you'll need to add the RAM requirements for all three to your total. Finally, you'll need RAM for data files—the open Word documents, Excel spreadsheets, MPEGs , and so on. More complex work demands more RAM. For example, a simple document may require less than 1MB, but a database file may fill several megabytes, and a high-resolution photo scan or graphic design may demand 50MB or more.

As a rule of thumb, if you base your overall memory requirements on the amount recommended for your operating system, you'll be in the ball park. As noted, you'll have to add more if you're processing large, complex files. Remember that Windows also uses virtual memory in the form of a swap file on your hard drive. If you don't want to buy the full amount of RAM that you expect to need, that's okay; your PC will make use of virtual memory to make up any difference. But be aware that this will result in a performance hit because of the hard drive access.

Time for More?
So how do you know when it's time for more RAM? Windows 9x makes checking the available memory easy using System Monitor ( Figure 1 ). This is a versatile reporting tool that can keep you informed of many different conditions in your PC, including unused physical memory. Start the system normally, then load any applications and data you use regularly to simulate normal use. Click on Start | Programs | Accessories | System Tools | System Monitor. Once System Monitor starts, click the Add button, select the Memory Manager category, then select the Unused Physical Memory item and click on OK. Memory use will be tracked as a graph over time. If System Monitor reports less than 10 percent unused memory, it's time to consider an upgrade. For example, if you have 128MB on the PC and System Monitor reports less than 12MB of RAM when the system is being used in a normal fashion, think about a memory purchase.

To check memory usage in the Windows 2000 and Windows XP families, press Ctrl-Alt-Del, choose Task Manager, and click the Performance tab. Here you see the current memory usage, as well as a graph showing memory usage history. Click the Processes tab and you can see the memory usage for each process. The Select Columns item in the View menu lets you choose to track other types of information—basically the same sort of things shown in the Windows 9x System Monitor.

In general, with regard to memory, more is better. Before you upgrade, though, you'll want to understand the various types of memory.
Ram Basics
Today, there are three varieties of memory in common use: SDRAM (synchronous dynamic RAM), Direct RDRAM (Rambus dynamic RAM), and DDR (double data rate) SDRAM. All three serve exactly the same role in a computer, but their internal designs are different, and memory module layouts for SDRAM and RDRAM are incompatible.

SDRAM was first used in 1996 with support for a PC processor bus (also called front-side bus or FSB) speed of 66 MHz, but by 1998 it had advanced to support the 100-MHz FSB. SDRAM certified to run at 100 MHz was dubbed PC100 SDRAM, and it is available in 168-pin dual in-line memory modules (DIMMs). Since each DIMM offers a 64-bit data bus, the peak bandwidth for SDRAM is 800 MBps (8 bytes x 100 MHz). This means a PC100 SDRAM DIMM can ideally pass up to 800 MBps between the DIMM and motherboard (though speeds rarely get this high in actual practice). By 1999, SDRAM was available to support a 133-MHz FSB speed, and this was termed PC133 SDRAM. With the same 64-bit data bus on a DIMM, PC133 SDRAM DIMM can theoretically handle up to 1.1 GBps (8 bytes x 133 MHz).

Rambus introduced its memory technology in 1995. Rather than using the existing processor bus, as other memory technologies do, Direct RDRAM employs a small 16-bit data bus with a dedicated high-speed (300-MHz) clock. Since Rambus handles two operations per clock cycle, this effectively doubles the clock speed to 600 MHz. Rambus also supports dual channels, effectively doubling the data bus to 32 bits and providing a peak bandwidth of 2.4 GBps (300 MHz x 2 operations per clock x 16 bits x 2 channels). Rambus modules rated for 300-MHz operation are termed PC600 RIMMs (the 300-MHz clock x 2). By 1998, Rambus had advanced to dual 400-MHz channels, so the effective clock rate became 800 MHz (400 MHz x 2) with a 16-bit data bus, yielding a peak bandwidth of 1.6 GBps. This doubles to 3.2 GBps when you add a second channel. 184-pin Rambus modules rated for 800-MHz operation are called PC800 RIMMs. Today, Rambus is advancing to 1,066 MHz (PC1066) and 1,200 MHz (PC1200) for even higher performance.

DDR SDRAM. The issue with SDRAM is that each data line passes only one bit per clock cycle (resulting, for a 64-bit memory device, in 64 bits per clock). To compete more closely with RDRAM, SDRAM creators developed memory that would perform two operations per clock cycle. This memory is called double data rate or DDR SDRAM. For a 100-MHz FSB, DDR SDRAM provides twice the bandwidth (8 bytes x 100 MHz x 2) or 1.6 GBps. For a 133-MHz FSB, DDR SDRAM can reach a peak bandwidth of 2.1 GBps (8 bytes x 133 MHz x 2). With a 166-MHz FSB, DDR SDRAM can offer a peak bandwidth of 2.7 GBps (8 bytes x 166 MHz x 2). These are called DDR200, DDR266, and DDR333 for 100-MHz, 133-MHz, and 166-MHz speeds, respectively. But memory makers often name the modules based on their bandwidth, such as PC1600 (1.6 GBps), PC2100 (2.1 GBps), and PC2700 (2.7 GBps). A DDR SDRAM module uses 184 pins (like a RIMM). Since DDR SDRAM builds on well-established SDRAM technology, it's often cheaper than Direct Rambus modules.

The important thing to remember is that you cannot mix SDRAM, Rambus, and DDR SDRAM on the same motherboard. When you're adding memory, select the type specifically intended for your motherboard. SDRAM modules each have 168 pins. Rambus and DDR SDRAM modules have 184 pins. Although they are all similar in size, the difference in pin count and keying prevents you from using them in the wrong slots. You'll also need to check whether the memory in your system uses error-checking techniques such as parity and ECC (error correction code) and whether it's buffered or unbuffered.

Memory is one of the most popular PC upgrades. It's relatively inexpensive and easy to do, yet it can improve performance and allow the system to support more (and more sophisticated) applications. When planning a memory upgrade, you need to evaluate the amount of RAM you need and understand the memory types and characteristics that are appropriate for your system. For tips that will ease the installation process, see "Adding More Memory".

Stephen J. Bigelow is the author of Troubleshooting, Maintaining, and Repairing Personal Computers (Fifth Edition).
How to Speed up Your RAM

Introduction
It's official: DDR400 memory is now the formal standard. Now that the Jedec committee has made its decision, RAM and motherboard makers finally have some guidelines on integration. DDR400, a.k.a. PC3200 RAM, had been plagued by incompatibility issues and an embarrassing lack of performance improvements. Without any official standard at all, trying to find a perfect match between RAM and the motherboard had been like playing poker blindfolded.

Admittedly, running fast DDR400 RAM is still not without its problems. The older DDR-1 technology runs up against 400 MHz memory clock speeds like a bull against a brick wall. Once launched, the DDR-2 standard will provide an entirely new design for RAM chips, changes to the board layout and decreased signal voltage - and that means clock speeds of up to 667 MHz. Don't expect the new technology until late 2003, though. Until then, you can optimize your BIOS settings to harness every little bit of DDR400 RAM you have or to resolve stability issues.

Older systems also stand to gain from the new modules. Even if you can't run the DDR400 modules at their top memory bus frequency of 400 MHz, you can still tweak the timing parameters to maximize performance at lower clock speeds. Faster memory modules are ideal for this purpose. More often than not, tightening your CAS latency or RAS-to-CAS delay will speed up your system more than jacking up your memory bus would. This article explains the concepts and technologies of memory timings and provides some tweaking advice. This information applies equally to RAM standards such as DDR333 and DDR266, allowing you to tweak just about any system.

Tweaking Modules

Clock speeds and timings can be faster with overclocking modules. Kingston, for example, makes PC3500 modules for up to 433 MHz.

You can start out with special tweaking modules that exceed the DDR400 standard and offer particularly high settings for clock speeds and timings. The modules are available from Corsair, Geil, Kingston, Mushkin and others as PC3500 or PC3700. While standards by these names don't really exist, the names indicate how much the modules can be overclocked.

But DDR RAM doesn't really spread its wings until it's installed in dual-channel motherboards that add together the memory bandwidths from two DDR modules. These mainboards sport Nvidia nForce 2 chipsets for AMD CPUs, or Intel 7205 (and, in the future, 865 and 875) chipsets for Intel processors.

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There is one catch - you always have to have two memory modules. BIOS often puts the brakes on the RAM timings so that the system remains stable, and that's where most of the optimization comes in. In fact, RAM manufacturers such as Corsair and Geil even sell matched pairs of memory modules as a bundle especially for dual-channel systems.

Tweaking RAM
The temptation that's inherent in faster RAM modules is to ratchet up your memory bus clock if you have an older system. For example, you can install DDR400 memory on a motherboard with a VIA KT333 or KT400 chipset for AMD CPUs. While the chipsets don't officially support the new RAM standard, you can still find tweaking options in the BIOS menus that will raise the clock speed from DDR333 to DDR400 levels.

If the system is unstable with memory clocked at 400 MHz, though, you can forget about fine-tuning the frequency. The memory clock moves in parallel to the front side bus clock and can only be adjusted in large increments, such as from DDR333 to DDR400. The adjustment itself is normally made by fiddling with the ratio to the front-side bus clock; 3/3 corresponds to DDR333 with the front-side bus at 333 MHz, while 4/3 stands for DDR400 memory clock speeds. For the RAM clock to be increased in smaller intervals, you will have to increase the front-side bus clock in lock-step.

The advantages of stepping up your memory clock in an AMD Athlon XP system, on the other hand, are few and far between. In fact, setting the memory bus to 400 MHz and the front side bus to 333 MHz can even slow down performance. Instead, you'll get better results from optimizing the timing parameters for the faster memory in BIOS.

Timings Bigger Than Bus Clock

The timing settings have just as big an impact on RAM performance as the bus frequency. After all, the data bus can only capitalize on the vast bandwidth if data is read out of the RAM chips and made available at a fast enough clip. And when the data is accessed from different memory zones, there are a whole slew of processes that stop up the flow of data. The memory timings define the speed with which all the individual steps involved in accessing RAM are done. It's more than worth your while to go to the trouble of optimizing these settings: your performance could increase by up to ten percent. What's more, optimizing your timing parameters can be more advantageous than increasing your bus clock. High-quality DDR333 RAM with quick timings will outperform a DDR400 module with timing settings that have been deliberately rolled back to increase the clock speed.

When tweaking your memory, the first step is to deactivate the automatic RAM configuration. When this function is activated, the mainboard reads the SPD chip (Serial Presence Detect) on the memory module to obtain information about the timings and clock speed and to adjust the settings accordingly. However, these settings, which the RAM manufacturer stores in the EEPROM chip, are very conservative in order to ensure stable operation on as many systems as possible. With a manual configuration, you can customize your settings for your own system - in most cases, the RAM modules will remain stable even when they exceed the manufacturer's specifications.

Nor should you gloss over checking your timing settings if you have inexpensive memory modules. Generic providers are famous for cutting corners during production and burning the wrong values into the SPD chips. Unhappy buyers are forced to struggle with poor performance or system crashes without knowing exactly why.
More To It Than CL Settings

The most important RAM timings are CAS latency (CL), RAS-to-CAS delay (tRCD) and RAS precharge time (tRP). Many memory modules have specifications such as PC2700-2.0-2-2.0 or PC3200-3.0-3-3.0. The first of these seemingly inscrutable numbers describes the memory type, the latter three the aforementioned timings. Other manufacturers merely list the CAS latency as CL 2.0 or CL 3.0. While it is an important performance feature, not listing the other parameters is a big disadvantage for the buyer because each one has a similar impact on system performance.

To see for yourself how big this impact is, take a look at the performance benchmarks for MPEG-4 encoding. We've also included a brief run-down of the most important timing parameters, short explanations and tips on the best settings at the end of the article, under the heading "How to Tweak Your RAM in BIOS." If clear information on possible performance settings is conspicuously absent from your brand-name RAM, you can consult the data sheets on the Internet (see "RAM Manufacturers").

To better understand the timing parameters, you should know about everything involved in accessing memory. The "RAM Timings" chart will give you an overview of how it works. A read process is initiated when the controller in the motherboard chipset selects the memory module that contains the data. The controller addresses the right chip on the module and the data it holds. The cells of the chip are arranged in a matrix and are addressed using the row and column addresses. Each intersection represents one memory bit.

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Mega Shutdown and Restart Troubleshooting Guide
Thus far, Windows XP shutdown issues most resemble those of Windows Millennium Edition. That is, most of them center around a very few issues, especially driver version and other legacy hardware and software compatibility issues. These are detailed below. The driver and software issues are expected to resolve substantially as hardware and software manufacturers release updated versions, now that Win XP has been officially launched.

Reboot Instead of Shutdown

The majority of shutdown problems reported with Windows XP thus far have been that it reboots when shutdown is attempted. This may be a global symptom emerging from several distinct causes, because XP executes an automatic restart in the event of a system failure. I'm guessing that this means that more or less anything compromising the operating system during the shutdown process could force this reboot. If this is true, then our job will be to prepare a series of steps suitable to isolate the most likely cause. Disabling the "restart on system failure" feature may permit the exact cause to be isolated:

Right-click on My Computer and select Properties. Click the Advanced tab. Under 'Startup & Recovery,' click Settings. Under 'System Failure,' uncheck the box in front of 'System reboot.'
Some things that have produced this reboot-instead-of-shutdown symptom are:
" By now, Roxio's Easy CD / Direct CD software is well documented as being a major cause - possibly the major cause - of this undesirable shutdown behavior. On November 1, Roxio released new drivers to solve this problem in Easy CD Creator 5 Platinum in its Windows XP updater for the Platinum product. A fix for Easy CD Creator 5 Basic is in the works. In the first few hours of its release, several peple have written me saying that this fix has resolved their Windows XP shutdown problem. I suspect that < least>of the Windows XP shutdown problems will go away with Roxio's release of this patch for Platinum and the pending patch for Basic. This has been the single most common cause of Win XP shutdown problems thus far. One person after another has written to me with the simple message that this reboot behavior went away as soon as they uninstalled Easy CD. HINT No. 1: PCBUILD subscribers, by trial and error, identified the file CDRALW2K.SYS (version 1.0.0.1048) as the Roxio file that was causing his shutdown problems and error conditions. When he deleted this one file, his problems went away. HINT No.2: The Mystic Overclocker and others have reported that installing Easy CD 5.0 does not cause the shutdown problem, provided they do not install the Direct CD component. Though this isn't universally true, enough people have mentioned it by now for me to suggest it as a work-around.
Unassigned Device Drivers

PCBUILD subscribers have found that Windows XP won't shutdown properly if unsigned device drivers are used. Since all necessary device drivers have not yet been created for Win XP, this will be a problem for the next few months. It resembles the pattern for Win ME shutdown problems, because even today, many hardware manufacturers have not prepared suitable drivers for use with ME.

SBLive: DEVLDR32.EXE PROBLEMS

In the early days of Win ME, one of the biggest culprits for shutdown issue was the Creative Labs SoundBlaster Live. History repeated itself in the early stages of Win XP. This now has been fixed for some users (but not for all) by the release of new drivers.
Here's the commonly reported scenario: On attempting shutdown, nothing at all appears to happen for a prolonged period of time. Eventually, an "End Task" window appears wanting to terminate DEVLDR32.EXE. No matter what one does, one ultimately is locked out of shutting down other than by a power switch shutoff. (This problem exists with the SBLive in Windows 2000 also.)
In mid-July, Microsoft posted new Win XP drivers for the SBLive on the Windows Update site. According to PCBUILD subscribers, these drivers solve the shutdown problem the SBLive was causing. I recommend you go to Windows Update and download the new driver if you have an SBLive card. However, some users are reporting that the DEVLDR problem continues to plague them even with the new drivers:

" In the event installing the new drivers does not solve your shutdown problem, try some of the solutions people have been using prior to the release of these new drivers. PCBUILD subscribers have written that they solved the well-documented SBLive/DEVLDR32 problem by downloading and installing the LiveService software. (We caution that one should disable all antivirus software while executing this program. I do recommend that you at least virus-check anything you download first!)
" PCBUILD subscribers" gave another solution to this problem: Uninstall the LiveWare software pack (of which DEVLDR is part). Uninstall the SBLive card. Restart Windows, let it detect the new hardware, and use the Windows XP driver. However, other users have reported that this isn't satisfactory because the XP native driver gives very poor sound quality. If the new drivers work for you, they are definitely the preferred option.

3D PROPHET 4500 VIDEO CARD

Other video cards that have created problems are those based on the Kyro II video chip, such as the Hercules Prophet 4500. PCBUILD subscribers have reported that until they removed the Kyro II / Prophet 4500, they could shutdown, hibernate, or go to stand by just fine, but Restart wouldn't work - it would shutdown Windows instead. Others with this video card have reported this strange behavior on both restart and shutdown.

Apparently, this problem is now solved. Microsoft reports that new drivers for this card, specific to Windows XP, are now available from Hercules. At present, they remain uncertified (PowerVR, who makes the Kyro II chip, is working on that), but they reportedly work just fine. Download the Kyro II drivers here.

SHUTDOWN HANGS ON "SAVING YOUR SETTINGS"

During shutdown or reboot, Win XP may hang (stop responding) at the "saving your settings" screen. During such a hang, there is no response to Ctrl+Alt+Del; the mouse may or may not work. (The problem may be intermittent.)

This is a known bug in Windows XP, for which Microsoft has a supported fix. Because this patch is scheduled for further quality assurance testing in the future, Microsoft only recommends that you install it if you have a serious problem; otherwise, they recommend waiting for Service Pack 1, which will include the more permanent version of the fix. To learn how to get this patch, see Windows XP Stops Responding (Hangs) During Windows Shutdown.

As a workaround, we resolved this problem by dismantling the Windows XP logon Welcome screen. In the Control Panel, click User Accounts, then click "Change the way users log on or off." Uncheck the box that says "Use the Welcome screen." This removes the initial logon screen with individual icons for each user and, instead, pops up the classic logon prompt that requires each user to type a user name and password.

"ShutMeDown" REGISTRY PATCH

Download the "ShutMeDown" Registry patch. Please follow sensible Registry editing protocol. Backup your Registry before the change (or run System Restore to create a restore point). This is not the appropriate fix for most machines, but does help a significant number. After installing, test Windows shutdown. If the fix does not work for you, remove it by restoring the Registry to its prior state.
For those who want a little more background information, the fix provided by this patch is based on a Microsoft Knowledge Base article Q155117 for Windows NT 4.0. It apparently still works in NT 5.1; that is, in Windows XP.

Stop Erros messages at shutdown

Some users have gotten an error message similar to the following when attempting either to shutdown or restart Win XP:

STOP 0000009F, DRIVER_POWER_STATE_FAILURE
STOP 0x0000001E: KMODE_EXCEPTION_NOT_HANDLED
STOP 0x000000D1: DRIVER_IRQL_NOT_LESS_OR_EQUAL

TechNet and the Microsoft Knowledge Base have numerous articles discussing this type of error condition; for example, these. As a review of these articles will show, these are commonly device driver problems, but may also be caused by troublesome software (such as the notorious CrashGuard), or a problem in a system service. MSKB article Q262575 discusses a shutdown problem of this type, known to exist in Windows 2000 due to a resource (IRQ) conflict, if you have PACE Interlok anti-piracy software installed. This problem may occur in Windows XP as well.

Try the following as one approach to these problems: Restart the computer. Press F8 during the restart and select "Last Known Good Configuration." If you catch the problem when it first occurs (meaning you likely have installed only one or two drivers or new service), this will return you to a previous working condition.

It has been reported by a PCBUILD Subscriber that these STOP code error message occur when Windows XP is trying to shut down devices. He says that he has seen this twice: once with Logitech Quickcam installed (with an unsupported driver), and once with a USB DSL modem that would hang if it wasn't disconnected before shutdown.

Shutdown Works but its real slow

If it appears that Win XP is not shutting down, give it some time. Some users have reported a minute or longer for shutdown to visibly start. Thus far, it appears that this is a consequence of software that is running when shutdown is attempted, and it also may have something to do with particular hardware. If you are experiencing this problem, be sure to close all running programs before attempting shutdown and see if this solves your problem. If so, then you can determine, by trial and error, which program(s) are involved.

One specific solution for this can be found: In Control Panel | Administrative Tools | Services. (You can also get this by launching SERVICES.MSC from a Run box. This utility is also built into the Computer Management console.) Stop the Nvidia Driver Helper service. Many other newsgroup participants quickly confirmed that this solved this "extremely slow shutdown" problem for them.

Powerdown Issues

"Powerdown issues" are quite distinctive from "shutdown issues." I define a shutdown problem as one wherein Windows doesn't make it at least to the "OK to shut off your computer" screen. If Windows gets that far, or farther, then it has shut down correctly. However, the computer may not powerdown correctly after that. This is a different problem, and I encourage people reporting these issues to make a clear distinction in their labeling.

When Windows XP won't powerdown automatically, the APM/NT Legacy Power Node may not be enabled. To enable this, right-click on the My Computer icon, click Properties | Hardware | Device Manager | View. Check the box labeled "Show Hidden Devices." If it's available on your computer, there will be a red X on the APM/NT Legacy Node. Try enabling it and see if this resolves the powerdown problem. (Tip from Terri Stratton.)

This should resolve the powerdown issue in most cases. However, other factors can sometimes interfere with correct powerdown functioning. In that case, consider the following tips:
" If you changing the default power settings in the BIOS, it can lead to a powerdown problem. Restoring all BIOS power settings to default will likely fix it.
PCBUILD subscribers reported that, when the above didn't work , they restored powerdown functioning by disabling his CD-ROM's AutoRun feature. The fastest way to do this is with the "Disable AutoRun" Registry patch which you can download here.

Other Known Issues and Hints

" BIOS UPGRADE. As with every new operating system that comes along - especially one that is as much of a "step up" as Windows XP is from Windows 9x - the recommendation is made to be sure your BIOS is updated. Many people have reported that this has solved their shutdown problems (and had other advantages) with Win XP, just as it has in earlier versions of Windows.

Quick Switching user Accounts

One reported quirk affecting shutdown is the three-account shuffle. Windows XP gives the ability to rapidly bounce between user accounts, with Win+L. If at least three user accounts exist, and you quick-switch through all three, and then log off all three in reverse order - "backing out" in an orderly way - then the machine may hang on shutdown. There may be other variations of account shuffling that cause this, but this one, clear example was provided by newsgroup correspondent John Ward. So far, I have no concrete clue on what may be occurring here.

SHUTDOWN WORKS, BUT IT’S REAL SLOW.

If it appears that Win XP is not shutting down, give it some time. Some users have reported a minute or longer for shutdown to visibly start. Thus far, it appears that this is a consequence of software that is running when shutdown is attempted, and it also may have something to do with particular hardware. If you are experiencing this problem, be sure to close all running programs before attempting shutdown and see if this solves your problem. If so, then you can determine, by trial and error, which program(s) are involved.
One specific solution for this was provided by Microsoft support. ” In Control Panel | Administrative Tools | Services. (You can also get this by launching SERVICES.MSC from a Run box. This utility is also built into the Computer Management console.) Stop the Nvidia Driver Helper service. Many other friends quickly confirmed that this solved this “extremely slow shutdown” problem for them.

POWERDOWN ISSUES.

“Powerdown issues” are quite distinctive from “shutdown issues.” I define a shutdown problem as one wherein Windows doesn’t make it at least to the “OK to shut off your computer” screen. If Windows gets that far, or farther, then it has shut down correctly. However, the computer may not powerdown correctly after that. This is a different problem, and I encourage that people reporting these issues to make a very clear distinction in their labeling.

When Windows XP won’t powerdown automatically, the APM/NT Legacy Power Node may not be enabled. To enable this, right-click on the My Computer icon, click Properties | Hardware | Device Manager | View. Check the box labeled “Show Hidden Devices.” If it’s available on your computer, there will be a red X on the APM/NT Legacy Node. Try enabling it and see if this resolves the powerdown problem.

This should resolve the powerdown issue in most cases. However, other factors can sometimes interfere with correct powerdown functioning. In that case, consider the following tips:
· If you are changing the default power settings in the BIOS, it can lead to a powerdown problem. Restoring all BIOS power settings to default will likely fix it.

OTHER KNOWN ISSUES & HINTS.

· BIOS UPGRADE.
As with every new operating system that comes along - especially one that is as much of a “step up” as Windows XP is from Windows 9x - the recommendation is made to be sure your BIOS is updated. Many people have reported that this has solved their shutdown problems (and had other advantages) with Win XP, just as it has in earlier versions of Windows.
A very important new feature in Microsoft Windows XP is the ability to do a boot defragment. This basically means that all boot files are placed next to each other on the disk drive to allow for faster booting. By default this option is enabled but some upgrade users have reported that it isn't on their setup.

1. Start Regedit.
2. Navigate to HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Dfrg\BootOptimizeFunction
3. Select Enable from the list on the right.
4. Right on it and select Modify.
5. Change the value to Y to enable and N to disable.
6. Reboot your computer.
Some people have noticed that they are experiencing a really slow shutdown after installing Windows XP Home or Professional. Although this can be caused a number of ways, the most clear cut one so far is happening on systems with an NVidia card installed with the latest set of drivers. A service called NVIDIA Driver Helper Service is loading up on start up and for whatever reason doesn't shut itself down properly. The service isn't needed and can also increase the amount of memory available to your system. Here is how to disable it.

1: Go into your Control Panel
2: Select Administrative Tools and then click on Services
3: Right click on the file "NVIDIA Driver Helper Service" and then select STOP.
4: To stop this loading up every time you boot up your PC Right click it again and select properties - then where the option "Startup Type" is shown - make sure it is set at Manual like we have shown in the image below.
Computer Won't Shut Down

There are a number of users who are noticing that their PC will no longer automatically power down/shut off without pressing the power off button on the computers unlike in Windows Me/95/2000. There could be a number of reasons for this - but the main one seems to be that ACPI is not enabled on the computer or in Windows XP. Here is how to try that out:

Click - Start - Control Panel - Performance and Maintenance - Power Options Tab

- Click on the APM Tab, then check the "Enable Advanced Power Management support."
- Shut down your PC. It should now successfully complete the Shut Down process.